Best Practice & Research Clinical Anaesthesiology
Volume 22, Issue 1 , Pages 111-133 , March 2008

Cardiovascular protection by anti-inflammatory statin therapy

  • Pierre Foëx, DM, DPhil, FRCA, FANZCA, Hon FSACA, FmedSci (Emeritus Nuffield Professsor of Anaesthetics)

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author.
  • Bruce Biccard, FFARCSI, FCA (SA) (Honorary Research Fellow, Consultant Anaesthetist)

References 

  1. NICE. Statins for the prevention of cardiovascular events. 2006.
  2. Howard-Alpe GM, Sear JW, Foex P. Methods of detecting atherosclerosis in non-cardiac surgical patients; the role of biochemical markers. British Journal of Anaesthesia. 2006 Dec;97(6):758–769
  3. Berliner JA, Navab M, Fogelman AM, et al. Atherosclerosis: basic mechanisms. Oxidation, inflammation, and genetics. Circulation. 1995 May 1;91(9):2488–2496
  4. Ross R. Atherosclerosis – an inflammatory disease. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1999 Jan 14;340(2):115–126
  5. Muhlestein JB, Hammond EH, Carlquist JF, et al. Increased incidence of Chlamydia species within the coronary arteries of patients with symptomatic atherosclerotic versus other forms of cardiovascular disease. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 1996 Jun;27(7):1555–1561
  6. Hendrix MG, Salimans MM, van Boven CP, Bruggeman CA. High prevalence of latently present cytomegalovirus in arterial walls of patients suffering from grade III atherosclerosis. The American Journal of Pathology. 1990 Jan;136(1):23–28
  7. Tillett HE, Smith JW, Gooch CD. Excess deaths attributable to influenza in England and Wales: age at death and certified cause. International Journal of Epidemiology. 1983 Sep;12(3):344–352
  8. Liuzzo G, Biasucci LM, Gallimore JR, et al. The prognostic value of C-reactive protein and serum amyloid a protein in severe unstable angina. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1994 Aug 18;331(7):417–424
  9. Vallance P, Collier J, Bhagat K. Infection, inflammation, and infarction: does acute endothelial dysfunction provide a link?. Lancet. 1997 May 10;349(9062):1391–1392
  10. Torzewski M, Rist C, Mortensen RF, et al. C-reactive protein in the arterial intima: role of C-reactive protein receptor-dependent monocyte recruitment in atherogenesis. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology. 2000 Sep;20(9):2094–2099
  11. Vainas T, Stassen FR, de Graaf R, et al. C-reactive protein in peripheral arterial disease: relation to severity of the disease and to future cardiovascular events. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2005 Aug;42(2):243–251
  12. Fernandez-Ortiz A, Badimon JJ, Falk E, et al. Characterization of the relative thrombogenicity of atherosclerotic plaque components: implications for consequences of plaque rupture. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 1994 Jun;23(7):1562–1569
  13. Wilcox JN, Smith KM, Schwartz SM, Gordon D. Localization of tissue factor in the normal vessel wall and in the atherosclerotic plaque. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1989 Apr;86(8):2839–2843
  14. Theroux P, Fuster V. Acute coronary syndromes: unstable angina and non-Q-wave myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1998 Mar 31;97(12):1195–1206
  15. Badimon L, Vilahur G, Sanchez S, Duran X. Atheromatous plaque formation and thrombogenesis: formation, risk factors and therapeutic approaches. European Heart Journal. 2001;3(Suppl. I):I16–I22
  16. Reeder MK, Goldman MD, Loh L, et al. Postoperative hypoxaemia after major abdominal vascular surgery. British Journal of Anaesthesia. 1992 Jan;68(1):23–26
  17. Landesberg G, Luria MH, Cotev S, et al. Importance of long-duration postoperative ST-segment depression in cardiac morbidity after vascular surgery. Lancet. 1993 Mar 20;341(8847):715–719
  18. Landesberg G, Mosseri M, Zahger D, et al. Myocardial infarction after vascular surgery: the role of prolonged stress-induced, ST depression-type ischemia. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2001 Jun 1;37(7):1839–1845
  19. Dawood MM, Gutpa DK, Southern J, et al. Pathology of fatal perioperative myocardial infarction: implications regarding pathophysiology and prevention. International Journal of Cardiology. 1996 Nov 15;57(1):37–44
  20. Cohen MC, Aretz TH. Histological analysis of coronary artery lesions in fatal postoperative myocardial infarction. Cardiovascular Pathology. 1999 May–Jun;8(3):133–139
  21. Le Manach Y, Perel A, Coriat P, et al. Early and delayed myocardial infarction after abdominal aortic surgery. Anesthesiology. 2005 May;102(5):885–891
  22. Libby P. Act local, act global: inflammation and the multiplicity of “vulnerable” coronary plaques. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2005 May 17;45(10):1600–1602
  23. Goldstein JA, Demetriou D, Grines CL, et al. Multiple complex coronary plaques in patients with acute myocardial infarction. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2000 Sep 28;343(13):915–922
  24. Tanaka A, Shimada K, Sano T, et al. Multiple plaque rupture and C-reactive protein in acute myocardial infarction. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2005 May 17;45(10):1594–1599
  25. Mauriello A, Sangiorgi G, Fratoni S, et al. Diffuse and active inflammation occurs in both vulnerable and stable plaques of the entire coronary tree: a histopathologic study of patients dying of acute myocardial infarction. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2005 May 17;45(10):1585–1593
  26. Ferreiros ER, Boissonnet CP, Pizarro R, et al. Independent prognostic value of elevated C-reactive protein in unstable angina. Circulation. 1999 Nov 9;100(19):1958–1963
  27. Correia LC, Sposito AC, Lima JC, et al. Anti-inflammatory effect of atorvastatin (80 mg) in unstable angina pectoris and non-Q-wave acute myocardial infarction. American Journal of Cardiology. 2003 Aug 1;92(3):298–301
  28. Beattie MS, Shlipak MG, Liu H, et al. C-reactive protein and ischemia in users and nonusers of beta-blockers and statins: data from the Heart and Soul Study. Circulation. 2003 Jan 21;107(2):245–250
  29. Topol EJ. A guide to therapeutic decision-making in patients with non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2003 Feb 19;41(4 Suppl. S):S123–S129
  30. Sido B, Teklote JR, Hartel M, et al. Inflammatory response after abdominal surgery. Best Practice and Research. Clinical Anaesthesiology. 2004 Sep;18(3):439–454
  31. Haim M, Tanne D, Boyko V, et al. Soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and long-term risk of acute coronary events in patients with chronic coronary heart disease. Data from the Bezafibrate Infarction Prevention (BIP) Study. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2002 Apr 3;39(7):1133–1138
  32. Jansson K, Redler B, Truedsson L, et al. Intraperitoneal cytokine response after major surgery: higher postoperative intraperitoneal versus systemic cytokine levels suggest the gastrointestinal tract as the major source of the postoperative inflammatory reaction. American Journal of Surgery. 2004 Mar;187(3):372–377
  33. van Berge Henegouwen MI, van der Poll T, van Deventer SJ, Gouma DJ. Peritoneal cytokine release after elective gastrointestinal surgery and postoperative complications. American Journal of Surgery. 1998 Apr;175(4):311–316
  34. Norwood MG, Bown MJ, Sayers RD. Ischaemia-reperfusion injury and regional inflammatory responses in abdominal aortic aneurysm repair. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 2004 Sep;28(3):234–245
  35. Cabie A, Farkas JC, Fitting C, et al. High levels of portal TNF-alpha during abdominal aortic surgery in man. Cytokine. 1993 Sep;5(5):448–453
  36. Swartbol P, Truedsson L, Norgren L. The inflammatory response and its consequence for the clinical outcome following aortic aneurysm repair. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 2001 May;21(5):393–400
  37. Bown MJ, Horsburgh T, Nicholson ML, et al. Cytokine gene polymorphisms and the inflammatory response to abdominal aortic aneurysm repair. British Journal of Surgery. 2003 Sep;90(9):1085–1092
  38. Baigrie RJ, Lamont PM, Whiting S, Morris PJ. Portal endotoxin and cytokine responses during abdominal aortic surgery. American Journal of Surgery. 1993 Sep;166(3):248–251
  39. Mamode N, Cobbe S, Pollock JG. Infarcts after surgery. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 1995 May 13;310(6989):1215–1216
  40. Scheingraber S, Dobbert D, Schmiedel P, et al. Gender-specific differences in sex hormones and cytokines in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Surgery Today. 2005;35(10):846–854
  41. Angele MK, Schwacha MG, Ayala A, Chaudry IH. Effect of gender and sex hormones on immune responses following shock. Shock. 2000 Aug;14(2):81–90
  42. Feezor RJ, Cheng A, Paddock HN, et al. Functional genomics and gene expression profiling in sepsis: beyond class prediction. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2005 Nov 15;41(Suppl. 7):S427–S435
  43. Sutherland AM, Russell JA. Issues with polymorphism analysis in sepsis. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2005 Nov 15;41(Suppl. 7):S396–S402
  44. Anselmi A, Abbate A, Girola F, et al. Myocardial ischemia, stunning, inflammation, and apoptosis during cardiac surgery: a review of evidence. European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery. 2004 Mar;25(3):304–311
  45. Abbate A, Biondi-Zoccai GG, Baldi A. Pathophysiologic role of myocardial apoptosis in post-infarction left ventricular remodeling. Journal of Cellular Physiology. 2002 Nov;193(2):145–153
  46. Birdi I, Angelini GD, Bryan AJ. Biochemical markers of myocardial injury during cardiac operations. Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 1997 Mar;63(3):879–884
  47. Hindler K, Shaw AD, Samuels J, et al. Improved postoperative outcomes associated with preoperative statin therapy. Anesthesiology. 2006 Dec;105(6):1260–1272[quiz 89–90]
  48. Vaughan CJ, Gotto AM, Basson CT. The evolving role of statins in the management of atherosclerosis. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2000 Jan;35(1):1–10
  49. Mach F. Statins as immunomodulatory agents. Circulation. 2004 Jun 1;109(21 Suppl. 1):II15–II17
  50. Alber HF, Frick M, Suessenbacher A, et al. Effect of atorvastatin on circulating proinflammatory T-lymphocyte subsets and soluble CD40 ligand in patients with stable coronary artery disease – a randomized, placebo-controlled study. American Heart Journal. 2006 Jan;151(1):139
  51. Bruni F, Pasqui AL, Pastorelli M, et al. Effect of atorvastatin on different fibrinolyis mechanisms in hypercholesterolemic subjects. International Journal of Cardiology. 2004 Jun;95(2–3):269–274
  52. Lai WT, Lee KT, Chu CS, et al. Influence of withdrawal of statin treatment on proinflammatory response and fibrinolytic activity in humans: an effect independent on cholesterol elevation. International Journal of Cardiology. 2005 Feb 28;98(3):459–464
  53. Patti G, Chello M, Pasceri V, et al. Protection from procedural myocardial injury by atorvastatin is associated with lower levels of adhesion molecules after percutaneous coronary intervention: results from the ARMYDA-CAMs (Atorvastatin for Reduction of MYocardial Damage during Angioplasty-Cell Adhesion Molecules) substudy. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2006 Oct 17;48(8):1560–1566
  54. Ray KK, Cannon CP, Cairns R, et al. Relationship between uncontrolled risk factors and C-reactive protein levels in patients receiving standard or intensive statin therapy for acute coronary syndromes in the PROVE IT-TIMI 22 trial. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2005 Oct 18;46(8):1417–1424
  55. Li JJ, Li YS, Chu JM, et al. Changes of plasma inflammatory markers after withdrawal of statin therapy in patients with hyperlipidemia. Clinica Chimica Acta. 2006 Apr;366(1–2):269–273
  56. Schachinger V, Britten MB, Zeiher AM. Prognostic impact of coronary vasodilator dysfunction on adverse long-term outcome of coronary heart disease. Circulation. 2000 Apr 25;101(16):1899–1906
  57. Gokce N, Keaney JF, Hunter LM, et al. Risk stratification for postoperative cardiovascular events via noninvasive assessment of endothelial function: a prospective study. Circulation. 2002 Apr 2;105(13):1567–1572
  58. Eichstadt HW, Eskotter H, Hoffman I, et al. Improvement of myocardial perfusion by short-term fluvastatin therapy in coronary artery disease. American Journal of Cardiology. 1995 Jul 13;76(2):122A–125A
  59. O'Driscoll G, Green D, Taylor RR. Simvastatin, an HMG-coenzyme A reductase inhibitor, improves endothelial function within 1 month. Circulation. 1997 Mar 4;95(5):1126–1131
  60. Davignon J. Beneficial cardiovascular pleiotropic effects of statins. Circulation. 2004 Jun 15;109(23 Suppl. 1):III39–III43
  61. Feron O, Dessy C, Desager JP, Balligand JL. Hydroxy-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibition promotes endothelial nitric oxide synthase activation through a decrease in caveolin abundance. Circulation. 2001 Jan 2;103(1):113–118
  62. Morikawa S, Takabe W, Mataki C, et al. The effect of statins on mRNA levels of genes related to inflammation, coagulation, and vascular constriction in HUVEC. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Journal of Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis. 2002;9(4):178–183
  63. Igarashi J, Miyoshi M, Hashimoto T, et al. Statins induce S1P1 receptors and enhance endothelial nitric oxide production in response to high-density lipoproteins. British Journal of Pharmacology. 2007 Feb;150(4):470–479
  64. Davignon J, Ganz P. Role of endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2004 Jun 15;109(23 Suppl. 1):III27–III32
  65. Ridker PM, Rifai N, Stampfer MJ, Hennekens CH. Plasma concentration of interleukin-6 and the risk of future myocardial infarction among apparently healthy men. Circulation. 2000 Apr 18;101(15):1767–1772
  66. Lindahl B, Toss H, Siegbahn A, et al. Markers of myocardial damage and inflammation in relation to long-term mortality in unstable coronary artery disease. FRISC Study Group. Fragmin during Instability in Coronary Artery Disease. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2000 Oct 19;343(16):1139–1147
  67. Ridker PM, Rifai N, Pfeffer MA, et al. Long-term effects of pravastatin on plasma concentration of C-reactive protein. The Cholesterol and Recurrent Events (CARE) Investigators. Circulation. 1999 Jul 20;100(3):230–235
  68. Plenge JK, Hernandez TL, Weil KM, et al. Simvastatin lowers C-reactive protein within 14 days: an effect independent of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol reduction. Circulation. 2002 Sep 17;106(12):1447–1452
  69. Olsson AG, Schwartz GG. Early initiation of treatment with statins in acute coronary syndromes. Annals of Medicine. 2002;34(1):37–41
  70. Wiklund O, Mattsson-Hulten L, Hurt-Camejo E, Oscarsson J. Effects of simvastatin and atorvastatin on inflammation markers in plasma. Journal of Internal Medicine. 2002 Apr;251(4):338–347
  71. Blake GJ, Ridker PM. Novel clinical markers of vascular wall inflammation. Circulation Research. 2001 Oct 26;89(9):763–771
  72. Bellosta S, Via D, Canavesi M, et al. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors reduce MMP-9 secretion by macrophages. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology. 1998 Nov;18(11):1671–1678
  73. Crisby M, Nordin-Fredriksson G, Shah PK, et al. Pravastatin treatment increases collagen content and decreases lipid content, inflammation, metalloproteinases, and cell death in human carotid plaques: implications for plaque stabilization. Circulation. 2001 Feb 20;103(7):926–933
  74. Dimmeler S, Aicher A, Vasa M, et al. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) increase endothelial progenitor cells via the PI 3-kinase/Akt pathway. The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2001 Aug;108(3):391–397
  75. Vasa M, Fichtlscherer S, Adler K, et al. Increase in circulating endothelial progenitor cells by statin therapy in patients with stable coronary artery disease. Circulation. 2001 Jun 19;103(24):2885–2890
  76. Orlic D, Kajstura J, Chimenti S, et al. Mobilized bone marrow cells repair the infarcted heart, improving function and survival. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2001 Aug 28;98(18):10344–10349
  77. Kwak B, Mulhaupt F, Myit S, Mach F. Statins as a newly recognized type of immunomodulator. Natural Medicines. 2000 Dec;6(12):1399–1402
  78. Wenke K, Meiser B, Thiery J, et al. Simvastatin reduces graft vessel disease and mortality after heart transplantation: a four-year randomized trial. Circulation. 1997 Sep 2;96(5):1398–1402
  79. Laurat E, Poirier B, Tupin E, et al. In vivo downregulation of T helper cell 1 immune responses reduces atherogenesis in apolipoprotein E-knockout mice. Circulation. 2001 Jul 10;104(2):197–202
  80. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2002 Jul 6;360(9326):7–22
  81. Biccard BM, Sear JW, Foex P. Statin therapy: a potentially useful peri-operative intervention in patients with cardiovascular disease. Anaesthesia. 2005 Nov;60(11):1106–1114
  82. Downs JR, Clearfield M, Weis S, et al. Primary prevention of acute coronary events with lovastatin in men and women with average cholesterol levels: results of AFCAPS/TexCAPS. Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study. The Journal of the American Medical Association. 1998 May 27;279(20):1615–1622
  83. Shepherd J, Blauw GJ, Murphy MB, et al. Pravastatin in elderly individuals at risk of vascular disease (PROSPER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2002 Nov 23;360(9346):1623–1630
  84. Major outcomes in moderately hypercholesterolemic, hypertensive patients randomized to pravastatin vs usual care: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT-LLT). The Journal of the American Medical Association. 2002 Dec 18;288(23):2998–3007
  85. Arntz HR, Agrawal R, Wunderlich W, et al. Beneficial effects of pravastatin (+/-colestyramine/niacin) initiated immediately after a coronary event (the randomized Lipid-Coronary Artery Disease [L-CAD] Study). American Journal of Cardiology. 2000 Dec 15;86(12):1293–1298
  86. Newby LK, Kristinsson A, Bhapkar MV, et al. Early statin initiation and outcomes in patients with acute coronary syndromes. The Journal of the American Medical Association. 2002 Jun 19;287(23):3087–3095
  87. Fonarow GC. In-hospital initiation of statin therapy in acute coronary syndromes: maximizing the early and long-term benefits. Chest. 2005 Nov;128(5):3641–3651
  88. Fonarow GC, Wright RS, Spencer FA, et al. Effect of statin use within the first 24 hours of admission for acute myocardial infarction on early morbidity and mortality. American Journal of Cardiology. 2005 Sep 1;96(5):611–616
  89. Shepherd J, Cobbe SM, Ford I, et al. Prevention of coronary heart disease with pravastatin in men with hypercholesterolemia. West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study Group. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1995;333(20):1301–1307
  90. Kasai T, Miyauchi K, Kurata T, et al. Long-term (11-year) statin therapy following percutaneous coronary intervention improves clinical outcome and is not associated with increased malignancy. International Journal of Cardiology. 2007 Jan 8;114(2):210–217
  91. McGown CC, Brookes ZL. Beneficial effects of statins on the microcirculation during sepsis: the role of nitric oxide. British Journal of Anaesthesia. 2007 Feb;98(2):163–175
  92. Durazzo AE, Machado FS, Ikeoka DT, et al. Reduction in cardiovascular events after vascular surgery with atorvastatin: a randomized trial. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2004;39(5):967–975
  93. Christenson JT. Preoperative lipid-control with simvastatin reduces the risk of postoperative thrombocytosis and thrombotic complications following CABG. European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery. 1999 Apr;15(4):394–399[discussion 9–400]
  94. Groschel K, Ernemann U, Schulz JB, et al. Statin therapy at carotid angioplasty and stent placement: effect on procedure-related stroke, myocardial infarction, and death. Radiology. 2006 Jul;240(1):145–151
  95. van de Pol MA, van Houdenhoven M, Hans EW, et al. Influence of cardiac risk factors and medication on length of hospitalization in patients undergoing major vascular surgery. American Journal of Cardiology. 2006 May 15;97(10):1423–1426
  96. Feringa HH, Bax JJ, Schouten O, Poldermans D. Protecting the heart with cardiac medication in patients with left ventricular dysfunction undergoing major noncardiac vascular surgery. Seminars in Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia. 2006 Mar;10(1):25–31
  97. Kapoor AS, Kanji H, Buckingham J, et al. Strength of evidence for perioperative use of statins to reduce cardiovascular risk: systematic review of controlled studies. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 2006 Dec 2;333(7579):1149
  98. Lindenauer PK, Pekow P, Wang K, et al. Lipid-lowering therapy and in-hospital mortality following major noncardiac surgery. The Journal of the American Medical Association. 2004;291(17):2092–2099
  99. Schwartz GG, Olsson AG, Ezekowitz MD, et al. Effects of atorvastatin on early recurrent ischemic events in acute coronary syndromes: the MIRACL study: a randomized controlled trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association. 2001 Apr 4;285(13):1711–1718
  100. de Lemos JA, Blazing MA, Wiviott SD, et al. Early intensive vs a delayed conservative simvastatin strategy in patients with acute coronary syndromes: phase Z of the A to Z trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association. 2004 Sep 15;292(11):1307–1316
  101. Hogue CW, Hyder ML. Atrial fibrillation after cardiac operation: risks, mechanisms, and treatment. Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 2000 Jan;69(1):300–306
  102. Mitchell LB, Crystal E, Heilbron B, Page P. Atrial fibrillation following cardiac surgery. Canadian Journal of Cardiology. 2005 Sep;21(Suppl. B):45B–50B
  103. Blanchard L, Collard CD. Non-antiarrhythmic agents for prevention of postoperative atrial fibrillation: role of statins. Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology. 2007 Feb;20(1):53–56
  104. Aviles RJ, Martin DO, Apperson-Hansen C, et al. Inflammation as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 2003 Dec 16;108(24):3006–3010
  105. Marin F, Pascual DA, Roldan V, et al. Statins and postoperative risk of atrial fibrillation following coronary artery bypass grafting. American Journal of Cardiology. 2006 Jan 1;97(1):55–60
  106. Dotani MI, Elnicki DM, Jain AC, Gibson CM. Effect of preoperative statin therapy and cardiac outcomes after coronary artery bypass grafting. American Journal of Cardiology. 2000;86(10):1128–1130A6
  107. Patti G, Chello M, Candura D, et al. Randomized trial of atorvastatin for reduction of postoperative atrial fibrillation in patients undergoing cardiac surgery: results of the ARMYDA-3 (Atorvastatin for Reduction of MYocardial Dysrhythmia After cardiac surgery) study. Circulation. 2006 Oct 3;114(14):1455–1461
  108. Ozaydin M, Dogan A, Varol E, et al. Statin use before by-pass surgery decreases the incidence and shortens the duration of postoperative atrial fibrillation. Cardiology. 2007;107(2):117–121
  109. Amar D, Zhang H, Heerdt PM, et al. Statin use is associated with a reduction in atrial fibrillation after noncardiac thoracic surgery independent of C-reactive protein. Chest. 2005 Nov;128(5):3421–3427
  110. Naylor AR, Mehta Z, Rothwell PM, Bell PR. Carotid artery disease and stroke during coronary artery bypass: a critical review of the literature. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 2002 Apr;23(4):283–294
  111. Aboyans V, Labrousse L, Lacroix P, et al. Predictive factors of stroke in patients undergoing coronary bypass grafting: statins are protective. European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery. 2006 Aug;30(2):300–304
  112. Blauw GJ, Lagaay AM, Smelt AH, Westendorp RG. Stroke, statins, and cholesterol. A meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trials with HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. Stroke. 1997 May;28(5):946–950
  113. Menasche P. The systemic factor: the comparative roles of cardiopulmonary bypass and off-pump surgery in the genesis of patient injury during and following cardiac surgery. Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 2001 Dec;72(6):S2260–S2265[discussion S5–6, S7–70]
  114. Liakopoulos OJ, Dorge H, Schmitto JD, et al. Effects of preoperative statin therapy on cytokines after cardiac surgery. The Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgeon. 2006 Jun;54(4):250–254
  115. Pascual DA, Arribas JM, Tornel PL, et al. Preoperative statin therapy and troponin T predict early complications of coronary artery surgery. Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 2006 Jan;81(1):78–83
  116. Clark LL, Ikonomidis JS, Crawford FA, et al. Preoperative statin treatment is associated with reduced postoperative mortality and morbidity in patients undergoing cardiac surgery: an 8-year retrospective cohort study. The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. 2006 Mar;131(3):679–685
  117. Ali IS, Buth KJ. Preoperative statin use and outcomes following cardiac surgery. International Journal of Cardiology. 2005 Aug 3;103(1):12–18
  118. Genest J, Frohlich J, Fodor G, McPherson R. Recommendations for the management of dyslipidemia and the prevention of cardiovascular disease: summary of the 2003 update. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2003 Oct 28;169(9):921–924
  119. De Backer G, Ambrosioni E, Borch-Johnsen K, et al. European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice. Third Joint Task Force of European and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice. European Heart Journal. 2003 Sep;24(17):1601–1610
  120. Lipid management guidelines – 2001. National Heart Foundation of Australia, The Cardiac Society of Australia and New Zealand. Medical Journal of Australia. 2001 Nov 5;175(Suppl):S57–S85
  121. Manuel DG, Kwong K, Tanuseputro P, et al. Effectiveness and efficiency of different guidelines on statin treatment for preventing deaths from coronary heart disease: modelling study. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 2006 Jun 17;332(7555):1419
  122. Teeling M, Bennett K, Feely J. The influence of guidelines on the use of statins: analysis of prescribing trends 1998-2002. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 2005 Feb;59(2):227–232
  123. NCEPOD . Abdominal aortic aneurysm: a service in need of surgery?. Available at: http://ncepod.org.uk2005;
  124. Brewer HB. Benefit-risk assessment of Rosuvastatin 10 to 40 milligrams. American Journal of Cardiology. 2003 Aug 21;92(4B):23K–29K
  125. Evans M. Statin safety in perspective - maximising the risk:benefit. British Journal of Cardiology. 2004;11(6):449–454
  126. Shepherd J, Hunninghake DB, Stein EA, et al. Safety of rosuvastatin. American Journal of Cardiology. 2004 Oct 1;94(7):882–888
  127. Thompson PD, Clarkson PM, Rosenson RS. An assessment of statin safety by muscle experts. American Journal of Cardiology. 2006 Apr 17;97(8A):69C–76C
  128. Staffa JA, Chang J, Green L. Cerivastatin and reports of fatal rhabdomyolysis. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2002 Feb 14;346(7):539–540
  129. Davidson MH. Controversy surrounding the safety of cerivastatin. Expert Opinion on Drug Safety. 2002 Sep;1(3):207–212
  130. Kashani A, Phillips CO, Foody JM, et al. Risks associated with statin therapy: a systematic overview of randomized clinical trials. Circulation. 2006 Dec 19;114(25):2788–2797
  131. Shepherd J. Who should receive a statin these days? Lessons from recent clinical trials. Journal of Internal Medicine. 2006 Oct;260(4):305–319
  132. Baber U, Toto RD, de Lemos JA. Statins and cardiovascular risk reduction in patients with chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal failure. American Heart Journal. 2007 Apr;153(4):471–477
  133. Neubauer H, Gunesdogan B, Hanefeld C, et al. Lipophilic statins interfere with the inhibitory effects of clopidogrel on platelet function – a flow cytometry study. European Heart Journal. 2003 Oct;24(19):1744–1749
  134. Schouten O, Kertai MD, Bax JJ, et al. Safety of perioperative statin use in high-risk patients undergoing major vascular surgery. American Journal of Cardiology. 2005;95(5):658–660
  135. Biccard BM, Sear JW, Foex P. The pharmaco-economics of peri-operative statin therapy. Anaesthesia. 2005 Nov;60(11):1059–1063
  136. Kupersmith J, Holmes-Rovner M, Hogan A, et al. Cost-effectiveness analysis in heart disease, part I: general principles. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases. 1994 Nov–Dec;37(3):161–184
  137. Buller N, Gillen D, Casciano R, et al. A pharmacoeconomic evaluation of the Myocardial Ischaemia Reduction with Aggressive Cholesterol Lowering (MIRACL) study in the United Kingdom. Pharmacoeconomics. 2003;21(Suppl. 1):25–32
  138. Probstfield JL. How cost-effective are new preventive strategies for cardiovascular disease?. American Journal of Cardiology. 2003 May 22;91(10A):22G–27G
  139. Grant PJ, Kedia N. Should statins be discontinued preoperatively? IMPACT consults. Proceedings of the 2nd Annual Cleveland Clinic Perioperative Medicine Summit. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine. 2006 Sep;73(Electronic Suppl. 1):S9–S10
  140. Le Manach Y, Godet G, Coriat P, et al. The impact of postoperative discontinuation or continuation of chronic statin therapy on cardiac outcome after major vascular surgery. Anesthesia and Analgesia. 2007 Jun;104(6):1326–1333
  141. McGowan MP. There is no evidence for an increase in acute coronary syndromes after short-term abrupt discontinuation of statins in stable cardiac patients. Circulation. 2004 Oct 19;110(16):2333–2335
  142. Heeschen C, Hamm CW, Laufs U, et al. Withdrawal of statins increases event rates in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 2002 Mar 26;105(12):1446–1452
  143. Heeschen C, Hamm CW, Laufs U, et al. Withdrawal of statins in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 2003 Jan 28;107(3):e27
  144. Vecchione C, Brandes RP. Withdrawal of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors elicits oxidative stress and induces endothelial dysfunction in mice. Circulation Research. 2002 Jul 26;91(2):173–179
  145. Endres M, Laufs U. Discontinuation of statin treatment in stroke patients. Stroke. 2006 Oct;37(10):2640–2643
  146. Collard CD, Body SC, Shernan SK, et al. Preoperative statin therapy is associated with reduced cardiac mortality after coronary artery bypass graft surgery. The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. 2006 Aug;132(2):392–400
  147. Li JJ, Li YS, Chen J, Yang JQ. Rebound phenomenon of inflammatory response may be a major mechanism responsible for increased cardiovascular events after abrupt cessation of statin therapy. Medical Hypotheses. 2006;66(6):1199–1204
  148. Cubeddu LX, Seamon MJ. Statin withdrawal: clinical implications and molecular mechanisms. Pharmacotherapy. 2006 Sep;26(9):1288–1296
  149. Taneva E, Borucki K, Wiens L, et al. Early effects on endothelial function of atorvastatin 40 mg twice daily and its withdrawal. American Journal of Cardiology. 2006 Apr 1;97(7):1002–1006
  150. Mukherjee D, Nissen SE, Topol EJ. Risk of cardiovascular events associated with selective COX-2 inhibitors. The Journal of the American Medical Association. 2001 Aug 22–29;286(8):954–959
  151. Hudson M, Richard H, Pilote L. Differences in outcomes of patients with congestive heart failure prescribed celecoxib, rofecoxib, or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: population based study. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 2005 Jun 11;330(7504):1370

PII: S1521-6896(07)00076-6

doi: 10.1016/j.bpa.2007.08.001

Best Practice & Research Clinical Anaesthesiology
Volume 22, Issue 1 , Pages 111-133 , March 2008

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution